Corn, Land, and the Women's Fields
- Written
- printed London 1643, from Williams's years among the Narragansett from the early 1630s
- Place
- Narragansett country
- Language
- English
- Kind of source
- dictionary
- Reading time
- 4 minutes
- Difficulty
- Moderate
- Intensity
- Low: no violence or death; nothing graphic
Northeast WoodlandsDictionaries and grammarsTranslation and interpretersWords and namesFood, farming and hunger
When a Narragansett field had to be broken up for planting, forty, fifty, or a hundred neighbors, men and women, came to do it together for nothing. Roger Williams watched this and reached for a Latin proverb: by agreement small things grow great.
Williams was an English minister who arrived in Boston early in 1631. Massachusetts banished him in 1635 for opinions its leaders judged dangerous. One was that the land belonged to its Native owners, not to the English king who had granted the colony its charter. By then he had been learning the Narragansett language for years and had made agreements with their sachems Canonicus and Miantonomi. In 1636 he settled on their land and founded Providence. In 1643 he published this book in London as a guide to their language. Each chapter gives words and phrases with their English meanings, adds his observations, and ends with a reflection in verse.
Williams knew the Narragansett well. He had lodged in their houses to learn their language since his first years in New England. But the words reach us in his English spelling, and he understood their farming as an Englishman and a minister. His remark on corn and health repeats what English doctors said, not what the Narragansett said.
He wrote for English readers, and partly to argue a case. He wanted them to see the Narragansett as people with laws and lands of their own.
Watch who does the farm work, and how Williams explains it. Notice the first observation, on land, and what it says about English claims.
The edited translation, in simplified modern English. Bracketed words were added for clarity; [...] marks a cut. Tap a note number to read the note.
Of the Earth, and the Fruits of It
Aûke and Sanaukamuck: earth or land. Níttauke, Nissawnâwkamuck: my land. Wuskâukamuck: new ground. Aquegunnítteash: fields worn out. Mìntúck-quash: trees. Pauchautaqunnêsash: branch, branches. Wunnèpog-guash: leaf, leaves. Wattáp: a root of a tree. Séip: a river. Toyùsk: a bridge. Sepoêse: a little river. Sepoêmese: a little rivulet. Takèkum: a spring. Takekummûo?: Is there a spring? Sepûo?: Is there a river? Toyusquanûo?: Is there a bridge? Observation: The natives1 are very exact and precise about the bounds of their lands, which belong to this or that prince2 or people, even down to a river or brook. And I have known them make bargains and sales among themselves for a small piece or quantity of ground. This is so despite a sinful opinion among many that Christians have a right to heathens' lands.3 But I have spoken of the delusion of that phrase in a discourse concerning the Indians' conversion.
[...] Wuttáhimneash: strawberries. Observation: This berry is the wonder of all the fruits growing naturally in those parts. It is excellent in itself, so that one of the chief doctors of England used to say that God could have made a better berry, but God never did. In some parts where the natives have planted,4 I have many times seen as many as would fill a good ship within a few miles' range. The Indians bruise them in a mortar and mix them with meal, and make strawberry bread.
[...] Ewáchim neash: corn. Scannémeneash: seed corn. Wompiscannémeneash: white seed corn. Observation: There are various sorts of this corn, and of various colors. Yet if the use of it, either boiled in milk or buttered, were known and accepted in England, it might save many thousands of lives in England (in the opinion of some skilled in medicine). Those lives are lost through the binding nature of English wheat, while Indian corn keeps the body in a constant, moderate looseness.5
Aukeeteaûmen: to plant corn. Quttáunemun: to plant corn. Anakáusu: a laborer. Anakáusichick: laborers. Aukeeteaûmitch: planting time. Aukeeteáhettit: when they plant corn. Nummautaukeeteaûmen: I have finished planting. Anaskhómmin: to hoe or break up. Observation: The women plant, weed, and hill, and gather and store all the corn and fruits of the field. Yet sometimes the man himself will help the woman, either out of love for his wife, or care for his children, or because he is an old man. By the custom of the country, men are not bound to do so.
When a field is to be broken up, they have a very loving, sociable, speedy way to get it done. All the neighbors, men and women, forty, fifty, a hundred, and so on, join and come in to help freely. Joining in friendship, they break up their fields, build their forts, hunt the woods, and stop and kill fish in the rivers. It is true with them, as in all the world, in the affairs of earth or heaven: by concord little things grow great, by discord the greatest come to nothing. Concordia parvae res crescunt, discordia magnae dilabuntur.6
Anáskhig-anash: hoe, hoes. Anaskhómwock: they hoe. Anaskhommonteâmin: they break [ground] for me. Anaskhomwáutowwin: a breaking-up hoe. The Indian women to this day, despite our hoes, use their natural hoes of shells and wood. Monaskúnnemun: to weed. Monaskunnummaûtowwin: a weeding or broad hoe. Petascúnnemun: to hill the corn. Kepenúmmin, Wuttúnnemun: to gather corn. Núnnowwa: harvest time. Anoûant: at harvest. Wuttùunemitch Ewáchim: when harvest is in. Pausinnummin: to dry the corn. They do this carefully, on heaps and mats, for many days before they store it, covering it with mats at night and opening it when the sun is hot.
Sókenug: a heap of corn. Observation: The women of the family will commonly raise two or three heaps of twelve, fifteen, or twenty bushels a heap, which they dry in round, broad heaps. And if a woman has help from her children or friends, much more. [...]
Notes
- The Narragansett, the people among whom Williams lived, around Narragansett Bay. Their language belongs to the Algonquian family. back
- Williams's word for a sachem, a Narragansett leader. Elsewhere in the book he writes “the Sachim or Prince.” back
- Williams held that the Native peoples, not the English king, owned the land. A Massachusetts magistrate, summing up the charges at his trial in 1635, named this first. back
- Williams means that berries grew most thickly in fields the Narragansett had cleared and planted, or perhaps that they had planted the berries themselves. back
- Williams repeats the opinion of English physicians that some foods “bound” the bowels and others loosened them, and that a body kept moderately loose stayed healthy. back
- The same proverb in Latin, from the Roman historian Sallust (The War with Jugurtha 10.6), where a dying king urges his heirs to keep the peace. Sallust has maxumae (the greatest) where Williams has magnae. back
Aûke, and Sanaukamuck, Earth or Land. Níttauke, Nissawnâwkamuck, My Land. Wuskâukamuck, New ground. Aquegunnítteash, Fields worne out. Mìntúck-quash, Trees. Pauchautaqunnêsash, Branch, Branches. Wunnèpog-guash, Leafe, leaves. Wattáp, A roote of Tree. Séip, A River. Toyùsk, A bridge. Sepoêse, A little River. Sepoêmese, A little Rivulet. Takèkum, A Spring. Takekummûo? Is there a Spring Sepûo, Is there a River. Toyusquanûo, Is there a Bridge.
Aûke and Sanaukamuck: earth or land. Níttauke, Nissawnâwkamuck: my land. Wuskâukamuck: new ground. Aquegunnítteash: fields worn out. Mìntúck-quash: trees. Pauchautaqunnêsash: branch, branches. Wunnèpog-guash: leaf, leaves. Wattáp: a root of a tree. Séip: a river. Toyùsk: a bridge. Sepoêse: a little river. Sepoêmese: a little rivulet. Takèkum: a spring. Takekummûo?: Is there a spring? Sepûo?: Is there a river? Toyusquanûo?: Is there a bridge?
Obs: The Natives are very exact and punctuall in the bounds of their Lands, belonging to this or that Prince or People, (even to a River, Brooke,) &c. And I have knowne them make bargaine and sale amongst themselves for a small piece, or quantity of Ground: notwithstanding a sinfull opinion amongst many that Christians have right to Heathens Lands: but of the delusion of that phrase, I have spoke in a discourse concerning the Indians Conversion.
Observation: The natives are very exact and precise about the bounds of their lands, which belong to this or that prince or people, even down to a river or brook. And I have known them make bargains and sales among themselves for a small piece or quantity of ground. This is so despite a sinful opinion among many that Christians have a right to heathens' lands. But I have spoken of the delusion of that phrase in a discourse concerning the Indians' conversion.
- The Narragansett, the people among whom Williams lived, around Narragansett Bay. Their language belongs to the Algonquian family.
- Williams's word for a sachem, a Narragansett leader. Elsewhere in the book he writes “the Sachim or Prince.”
- Williams held that the Native peoples, not the English king, owned the land. A Massachusetts magistrate, summing up the charges at his trial in 1635, named this first.
Left out of this excerpt.
Wuttáhimneash, Strawberries. Obs: This Berry is the wonder of all the Fruits growing naturally in those parts: it is of itselfe Excellent: so that one of the chiefest Doctors of England was wont to say, that God could have made, but God never did make a better Berry: In some parts where the Natives have planted, I have many times seen as many as would fill a good ship within a few miles compasse: The Indians bruise them in a Morter, and mixe them with meale and make Strawberry bread.
Wuttáhimneash: strawberries. Observation: This berry is the wonder of all the fruits growing naturally in those parts. It is excellent in itself, so that one of the chief doctors of England used to say that God could have made a better berry, but God never did. In some parts where the natives have planted, I have many times seen as many as would fill a good ship within a few miles' range. The Indians bruise them in a mortar and mix them with meal, and make strawberry bread.
- Williams means that berries grew most thickly in fields the Narragansett had cleared and planted, or perhaps that they had planted the berries themselves.
Left out of this excerpt.
Ewáchim neash, Corne. Scannémeneash, Seed Corne. Wompiscannémeneash, White seed-corne. Obs: There be diverse sorts of this Corne, and of the colours: yet all of it either boild in milke, or buttered, if the use of it were knowne and received in England (it is the opinion of some skillfull in physic) it might save many thousand lives in England, occasioned by the binding nature of the English wheat, the Indian Corne keeping the body in a constant moderate loosenesse.
Ewáchim neash: corn. Scannémeneash: seed corn. Wompiscannémeneash: white seed corn. Observation: There are various sorts of this corn, and of various colors. Yet if the use of it, either boiled in milk or buttered, were known and accepted in England, it might save many thousands of lives in England (in the opinion of some skilled in medicine). Those lives are lost through the binding nature of English wheat, while Indian corn keeps the body in a constant, moderate looseness.
- Williams repeats the opinion of English physicians that some foods “bound” the bowels and others loosened them, and that a body kept moderately loose stayed healthy.
Aukeeteaûmen, To plant Corne. Quttáunemun, To plant Corne. Anakáusu, A Labourer. Anakáusichick, Labourers. Aukeeteaûmitch, Planting time. Aukeeteáhettit, When they set Corne. Nummautaukeeteaûmen, I have done planting. Anaskhómmin, To how or break up. Obs: The Women set or plant, weede, and hill, and gather and barne all the corne and Fruites of the Field: yet sometimes the man himselfe, (either out of love to his Wife, or care for his Children, or being an old man) will help the Woman which (by the custome of the Countrey) they are not bound to.
Aukeeteaûmen: to plant corn. Quttáunemun: to plant corn. Anakáusu: a laborer. Anakáusichick: laborers. Aukeeteaûmitch: planting time. Aukeeteáhettit: when they plant corn. Nummautaukeeteaûmen: I have finished planting. Anaskhómmin: to hoe or break up. Observation: The women plant, weed, and hill, and gather and store all the corn and fruits of the field. Yet sometimes the man himself will help the woman, either out of love for his wife, or care for his children, or because he is an old man. By the custom of the country, men are not bound to do so.
When a field is to be broken up, they have a very loving sociable speedy way to dispatch it: All the neighbours men and Women forty, fifty, a hundred, &c. joyne, and come in to helpe freely. With friendly joyning they breake up their fields, build their Forts, hunt the woods, stop and kill fish in the Rivers, it being true with them as in all the World in the Affaires of Earth or Heaven: By concord little things grow great, by discord the greatest come to nothing. Concordiâ parvœ res crescunt, discordiâ magnœ dilabuntur.
When a field is to be broken up, they have a very loving, sociable, speedy way to get it done. All the neighbors, men and women, forty, fifty, a hundred, and so on, join and come in to help freely. Joining in friendship, they break up their fields, build their forts, hunt the woods, and stop and kill fish in the rivers. It is true with them, as in all the world, in the affairs of earth or heaven: by concord little things grow great, by discord the greatest come to nothing. Concordia parvae res crescunt, discordia magnae dilabuntur.
- The same proverb in Latin, from the Roman historian Sallust (The War with Jugurtha 10.6), where a dying king urges his heirs to keep the peace. Sallust has maxumae (the greatest) where Williams has magnae.
Anáskhig-anash, How, Howes. Anaskhómwock, They how. Anaskhommonteâmin, They break for me. Anaskhomwáutowwin, A breaking up How. The Indian women to this day (notwithstanding our Howes, doe use their naturall Howes of shells and Wood. Monaskúnnemun, To weede. Monaskunnummaûtowwin, A weeding or broad How. Petascúnnemun, To hill the Corne. Kepenúmmin, & Wuttúnnemun, To gather Corne. Núnnowwa, Harvest time. Anoûant, At harvest. Wuttùunemitch, Ewáchim, When harvest is in. Pausinnummin, To dry the corne. Which they doe carefully upon heaps and Mats many dayes, before they barne it up, covering it up with Mats at night, and open it when the Sun is hot.
Anáskhig-anash: hoe, hoes. Anaskhómwock: they hoe. Anaskhommonteâmin: they break [ground] for me. Anaskhomwáutowwin: a breaking-up hoe. The Indian women to this day, despite our hoes, use their natural hoes of shells and wood. Monaskúnnemun: to weed. Monaskunnummaûtowwin: a weeding or broad hoe. Petascúnnemun: to hill the corn. Kepenúmmin, Wuttúnnemun: to gather corn. Núnnowwa: harvest time. Anoûant: at harvest. Wuttùunemitch Ewáchim: when harvest is in. Pausinnummin: to dry the corn. They do this carefully, on heaps and mats, for many days before they store it, covering it with mats at night and opening it when the sun is hot.
Sókenug, A heap of corne. Obs: The women of the Family will commonly raise two or three heaps of twelve, fifteene, or twentie bushells a heap, which they drie in round broad heaps; and if she have helpe of her children or friends much more.
Sókenug: a heap of corn. Observation: The women of the family will commonly raise two or three heaps of twelve, fifteen, or twenty bushels a heap, which they dry in round, broad heaps. And if a woman has help from her children or friends, much more.
Left out of this excerpt.
Left out of this excerpt.
Who and what this source names, in the original. Each name links to every source in the library that mentions it. Not yet checked.
Ideas
- Maize (corn) The grain of the Americas, eaten as bread, porridge and drink and planted in hills or holes made with a stick. English writers called it Indian corn. Sections 16.6, 16.7, 16.9, 16.10.
- Rights to the land Who owned the land in the Americas: its Native peoples, or the Christian kings who granted it by charter. Roger Williams argued that it belonged to its Native owners. Sections 16.2.
- Women's work The work that writers assign to women: keeping the house and its stores, making cloth and food, running the dairy, or planting and harvesting the fields. Sections 16.7.
People
Places
Page images of the original object or of the printed edition, from the libraries and archives that hold them. The pages shown are copied here where the holder marks them public domain; titles link to the holder's own viewer. Click a page to see it full size.
Internet Archive (Newberry Library, Ayer collection). pp. 89–94. The Newberry Library makes its collections available for any lawful purpose (published 1827).
The printed edition our text follows.
Difficulty: Moderate, the Narragansett word lists in italics can be skimmed; the observations are plain modernized English.
Fits these units
- Food, farming, and Native knowledge. What did Europeans learn from Native farmers, cooks, and healers, and how did they describe it?
Key terms
- heathen
- a word Christians used for people who were not Christians, Jews, or Muslims; here, the Native peoples
- prince
- Williams's word for a sachem, a Narragansett leader
- hill
- to heap soil up around the base of growing corn plants
- mortar
- a hard bowl in which food is pounded or crushed
- bushel
- an English measure for grain and other dry goods
- concord
- agreement and peace among people; its opposite is discord
Questions
- Comprehension
According to Williams, who planted, weeded, and stored the corn, and when might a man help?
- Analysis
Williams's first observation is about the bounds of Narragansett lands and their sales of ground. Why might he place it first, and what does it say about English claims to the land?
- Analysis (reliability)
Williams lodged in Narragansett houses to learn their language, but he wrote in English for English readers, partly to argue a case. Which of his statements rest on what he saw, and which rest on other people's opinions?
- Connection
In The First Winter and Squanto's Corn, Bradford says that Squanto showed the English how to plant their corn. Compare what Bradford and Williams tell us about who held the knowledge of growing corn and how it was shared. Whose work does each writer bring forward, and whose does he leave out?
Activity
Students sort the Narragansett farming words into the order of the farming year: breaking up the ground, planting, weeding, hilling, harvest, and drying. Beside each stage they note, from Williams's observations, who did the work and with what tools. The class then discusses what an English reader in 1643 would learn from the chapter, and what it shows about Williams himself.
A printable worksheet for this source · More on Hearth Learning
Williams wrote in English; this is the text of the London edition of 1643 as reprinted by the Rhode-Island Historical Society (Providence, 1827), pages 89–94. About 640 words of the chapter, with its long word lists shortened (cuts marked [...]).
Spelling, capitals and punctuation of the English are modernized; Williams's words and word order are kept. The Narragansett words are kept as the 1827 reprint prints them, with its accents, in italics; differences from the 1643 printing are noted in Compare. The edition sets the word lists in two columns; here each word is followed by a colon and its meaning. A few words are given their modern equivalents: “punctuall” (precise), “barne” (store), “how” (hoe). The Latin proverb is kept and footnoted. One sentence, in the observation on corn, is lightly reordered so that it reads clearly.
- Original
- Text as printed in the named edition or on the object, read from page images. Edition: Roger Williams, A Key into the Language of America (London: Gregory Dexter, 1643), as reprinted in Collections of the Rhode-Island Historical Society, vol. 1 (Providence: John Miller, 1827), chapter 16, pp. 89–94. Digital text: Internet Archive item Ayer_421_N2125_1827 (Newberry Library copy), OCR text, extracted by code and read against the page images; compared with the London 1643 printing. Williams's text only; the Society's preface and memoir are not copied.
- Editor’s review
- Not yet.
- Specialist review
- Not yet. Readings a specialist should confirm are listed for later review.
- Rights
- Original: public domain. Edition: public domain. Our translations and notes: CC BY-SA 4.0; credit “Hearth Library, hearthinteractive.com” with a link.
Sources for the notes
- Williams, Roger. A Key into the Language of America. In Collections of the Rhode-Island Historical Society, vol. 1. Providence: John Miller, 1827. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/Ayer_421_N2125_1827. Chapter 16, pp. 89–94.
- Williams, Roger. A Key into the Language of America. London: Gregory Dexter, 1643. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/keyintolanguageo02will. Chapter 16, pp. 92–104 (the printed numbering has errors).
- Williams, Roger. A Key into the Language of America. Edited by J. Hammond Trumbull. Publications of the Narragansett Club, 1st ser., vol. 1. Biographical introduction by Reuben Aldridge Guild. Providence, 1866. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/publicationsofna01narr. Biographical introduction (on Williams's arrival, banishment and settlement), the editor's preface (on his learning of the language), and chapter 16 with the editor's notes.
- Sallust. The War with Jugurtha. In Sallust, translated by J. C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library. London: Heinemann; New York: Putnam, 1921. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/sallustsa00sall. Chapter 10, pp. 148–149.